Muslim Entrepreneur

Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching and running a new business, which is often initially a small business. The people who create these businesses are called entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurship has been described as the “capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business venture along with any of its risks to make a profit.” While definitions of entrepreneurship typically focus on the launching and running of businesses, due to the high risks involved in launching a start-up, a significant proportion of start-up businesses have to close due to “lack of funding, bad business decisions, an economic crisis, lack of market demand, or a combination of all of these.”

A broader definition of the term is sometimes used, especially in the field of economics. In this usage, an Entrepreneur is an entity which has the ability to find and act upon opportunities to translate inventions or technologies into products and services: “The entrepreneur is able to recognize the commercial potential of the invention and organize the capital, talent, and other resources that turn an invention into a commercially viable innovation.”  In this sense, the term “Entrepreneurship” also captures innovative activities on the part of established firms, in addition to similar activities on the part of new businesses.

Entrepreneurship is an act of being an entrepreneur, or “the owner or manager of a business enterprise who, by risk and initiative, attempts to make profits”. Entrepreneurs act as managers and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise. Entrepreneurship is the process by which either an individual or a team identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. Early-19th-century French economist Jean-Baptiste Say provided a broad definition of entrepreneurship, saying that it “shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield”. Entrepreneurs create something new, something different—they change or transmute values. Regardless of the firm size, big or small, they can partake in entrepreneurship opportunities. The opportunity to become an entrepreneur requires four criteria. First, there must be opportunities or situations to recombine resources to generate profit. Second, entrepreneurship requires differences between people, such as preferential access to certain individuals or the ability to recognize information about opportunities. Third, taking on risk is a necessity. Fourth, the entrepreneurial process requires the organization of people and resources.

The entrepreneur is a factor in and the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. However, entrepreneurship was largely ignored theoretically until the late 19th and early 20th centuries and empirically until a profound resurgence in business and economics since the late 1970s. In the 20th century, the understanding of entrepreneurship owes much to the work of economist Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich von Hayek. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is a person who is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation. Entrepreneurship employs what Schumpeter called “the gale of creative destruction” to replace in whole or in part inferior innovations across markets and industries, simultaneously creating new products including new business models. In this way, creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth. The supposition that entrepreneurship leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory and as such is hotly debated in academic economics. An alternative description posited by Israel Kirzner suggests that the majority of innovations may be much more incremental improvements such as the replacement of paper with plastic in the making of drinking straws.

The exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities may include:

• Developing a business plan
• Hiring the human resources
• Acquiring financial and material resources
• Providing leadership
• Being responsible for both the venture’s success or failure
• Risk aversion

 

Economist Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950) saw the role of the entrepreneur in the economy as “creative destruction” – launching innovations that simultaneously destroy old industries while ushering in new industries and approaches. For Schumpeter, the changes and “dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur [were] the norm of a healthy economy“.^[10] While entrepreneurship is often associated with new, small, for-profit start-ups, entrepreneurial behavior can be seen in small-, medium- and large-sized firms, new and established firms and in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations, including voluntary-sector groups, charitable organizations and government.

Entrepreneurship may operate within an entrepreneurship ecosystem which often includes:

• Government programs and services that promote entrepreneurship and support entrepreneurs and start-ups
• Non-governmental organizations such as small-business associations and organizations that offer advice and mentoring to entrepreneurs (e.g. through entrepreneurship centers or websites)
• Small-business advocacy organizations that lobby governments for increased support for entrepreneurship programs and more small business-friendly laws and regulations
• Entrepreneurship resources and facilities (e.g. business incubators and seed accelerators)
• Entrepreneurship education and training programs offered by schools, colleges and universities
• Financing (e.g. bank loans, venture capital financing, angel investing and government and private foundation grants)^{[12][need quotation to verify]}

In the 2000s, usage of the term “entrepreneurship” expanded to include how and why some individuals (or teams) identify opportunities, evaluate them as viable, and then decide to exploit them The term has also been used to discuss how people might use these opportunities to develop new products or services, launch new firms or industries, and create wealth. The entrepreneurial process is uncertain because opportunities can only be identified after they have been exploited.

Entrepreneurs exhibit positive biases towards finding new possibilities and seeing unmet market needs, and a tendency towards risk-taking that makes them more likely to exploit business opportunities

Are Jews and Bani-Isra-eel the same

 

BEN ABRAHAMSON

WEDNESDAY, 30 DECEMBER 2015

Q. Are Jews and Bani-Isra-eel the same? The Quran says many time ‘ Oh, Bani-israal, but never ‘ Oh Jews’.

A. The Prophet Yakov/Yakub (pbuh) was given the name Israel in 1555 BCE by an angel. It means “one who has struggled for God[‘s blessing].” The children of Yakov (pbuh) were called the Children of Israel. Yehudah (pbuh) was the name of the leading son.

Orginally “Jew” would have meant a descendant of Judah (pbuh) son of Jacob (pbuh), but rarely used.

The Children of Israel were early forced to go to Egypt. Upon the death of Yosef (pbuh) in 1451 BCE they began to be forced into slavery. In 1306 BCE, Moses (pbuh) led them out of Egypt where the tribes of Yosef, Gad, and Reuben (pbuh) settled east of the Jordan river. In 1265 BCE, Joshua (pbuh) led the rest of the Children of Israel into lands west of the Jordan river.

After being ruled by various judges, the Children of Israel made a kingdom known as “Israel”, first under Saul (1061 BCE) and then David (1052 BCE) (pbu them). King David (pbuh) conquered the Amalekites (at that time in southern Israel and Sinai), Edom (southern Jordan and Hejez), Moab & Ammon (Jordan) and Aram (Lebanon and eastern Syria). King David (pbuh) forced these people to conform to monotheism. There were thousands converts during this time, and most people adopted at least outwardly Israel’s monotheism. Under Solomon (pbuh) 1015-979 BCE, the kingdom of Israel grew to its greatest extent with treaties with nations as far as Africa, Arabia (Saba, Yemen), India, and Greece.

In 979 BCE, after the death of Solomon (pbuh), the kingdom of Israel was split into two. The northern clans called themselves the “kingdom of Israel” with Samaria (next to Nablus today) as their capital The southern clans called themselves the “king of Judah” because they were located primarily on the ancestral lands of the tribe of Judah. Jerusalem was their capital. The northern kingdom of Israel fell into idolatry and prophets (pbu them) were sent to bring them back. The prophets (pbu them) were largely unsuccessful, and in a series of wars with Tiglath-Pileser III and later Shalmanezer V, the northern clans were deported to Assyria between 744-718 BCE. The southern kingdom of Judah also fell into idolatry, but to a lesser extent. Prophets (pbu them) were sent to bring them back, and eventually the kings repented. However it was too late. In 587 BCE, Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar and the southern tribes were deported to Babylon.

The word “Jew” was used generally for the first time in Babylon, meaning “monotheist”

In 537 BCE, Cyrus conquered Bablylon, and as part of his reforms, allowed the Children of Israel to return to the Holy Land. The exile of the kingdom of Judah had been about 50 years (70 since the Temple service ceased). The exile of the kingdom of Israel had been about 200 years. The religious state of the kingdom of Judah and the shortness of their exile meant their culture and religion was strong. This caused the word “Jew” to become synonymous with monotheist. Cyrus sent four governors to rule what was once Solomon’s (pbuh) kingdom as a vassal state for Persia. They were Sanballat (Ethiopia+Coast), Tobiah (Syria+trans-Jordan), Zerubavel (Jerusalem) and Gashmu (Arabia). These were all royal families of the Children of Israel.

In 521 BCE, Zerubavel was given the right to rebuild Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, while the other three governors were required to support the religious service in Jerusalem. Zerubavel rededicated the altar in Jerualem and this is the last time all 12 tribes of the Children of Israel are mentioned. Later there was a falling out. To assist in their rule, three of the governors intermarried with local nobility. In 458 BCE, Ezra (pbuh), a priest and scribe, led a group of religious Children of Israel from Babylon to Israel. He objected to the influence of the foreign wives on the nobility.

After Nehemiah, the word “Jew” became to mean “those who did not intermarry with foreign wives”

In 445 BCE, Nehemiah (pbuh) ordered a gathering outside Jerusalem asking all the Children of Israel to renounce idolatry and divorce their foreign wives. Anyone who did not would be erased from the book of genealogy and they would be cut off from the Children of Israel. This caused a backlash with each governor who already resented that they had to support the Temple in Jerusalem. As my research shows, each created its own form of worship. Sanballat and his intermarried people were called the “guardians [of the traditions of God]” called “Shomrim”, known today as Samaritans. Tobiah and his intermarried people were called the “keepers [of the traditions of God]” called “Notzrim”, known later as Nasaara. Gashmu’s people were called “dwellers [in the land of God]” called “Toshav”, known later as tsabi or Sabians. Erza and Nehemiah’s people were called “Yehudim”.

In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great came [almost] to Jerusalem and honored Shimon HaTzadik. The Samaritans and the people of Tobiah petitioned him to give Jerusalem to them, but Alexander confirmed the “Jews” to continue to control the worship at Jerusalem. Hellenism began to greatly influence the Middle East. The vast majority of the people of Sanballat left the Torah traditions, with only a few left, centered around Mount Gerizim. Tobiah’s people split in half. Those who sided with Syria became Hellenized and left Torah. Those who sided with Egypt took to the caves and became monks after the Ptolomies no longer had influence in their land. Some began to fall into idolatry. The people of Gashmu fell into idolatry, although maintained some “Jewish” practices. The Jews who mixed Hellenism with Judaism were called Sadducees. Those who didn’t, and remained deeply religious, were called Pharisees.

In 159 BCE, with the rise of Rome, there was a resurgence of traditional Judaism. The Maccabees expelled the Hellenist leadership from the Holy Land and established an independent state. They were immediately recognized by Rome, who saw them as an ally against Syria. The last Hellenized priest Onias IV fled to Egypt where he made a Temple there and also in Arabia for “God fearing” non-Jews to offer sacrifices and participate in a kind of “Jewish” practices. The next generation of Maccabees, calling themselves the Hasmoneans, envisioned they would restore Solomon’s kingdom. They began to subdue to provinces of Galiliee, trans-Jordan and Arabia. They forced all their inhabitants to keep full Mosaic tradition. They called themselves “Israel”. The Romans with a smaller vision of their future, called their kingdom “Judea.”

In Jesus’ (pbuh) time, the word “Jew” meant “those who support the leadership in Jerusalem”

In 37 BCE, one of the mixed Tobiad / Edomite (Arab) families included Herod. Herod had been trained in Rome, and was confirmed by Rome to rule Judea. Being of Edomite lineage himself, he sought to remove any distinction between Edomite (Idūmaeas) and Jew (Iudaeus). Some of the greatest families in the priesthood and nobility were of mix ancestry Arab and Jewish, and the most zealous of these during the period of Jesus (pbuh) were called “Jews”. Because there were so many new people included, the people no longer called themselves “Children of Israel” rather they began to use the term “Nation of Israel”

By 70 CE, Rome saw no more need for an independent ally against Syria. They increased taxes and harsh governance of Judea. Eventually the Jews revolted and almost succeeded to throw off Roman rule. Those who had benefited most from Hasmoean and later Herodian rule became zealots and led the revolt against Rome. Eventually after many, many losses on both sides, Rome conquered Jerusalem. However as Josephus explains, Jerusalem was a symbol and light to the entire region, as Athens was to the entire Greek world. From Egypt to Arabia, from Asia minor to Persia, there began a second revolt against Rome. And in 135 CE, the last rebellion supported by Persia and its leader Bar Kockba was utterly crushed. The Romans, tied of zealots and afraid of revolt, placed a Pharisaic Jew in charge of the Sanhedrin and declared Pharisaic Judaism (later to be known as Rabbinic Judaism) to be the only official form of Judaism. This ruling was reversed and the Sanhedrin abolished in 353 CE, shortly after Rome adopted Christianity.

By Bar Kockba’s time, and for the next thousand years, “Jew” meant “those who oppose Rome”.

There were pockets of resistance to Rome. It started in 470 CE when the “Jews” of Persia revolted against the Mazdakites who wished to take their children and make them into Zoroastrians. This was the first, short lived independant regime, until its leaders Mar Zutra and others were crucified at the entrance to Mahoza. A relative of Mar Zutra and claimed descendant of Herod, Dhu Nuwas, tried to revolt against Rome in Arabia. He waged war on those he thought sympathic to Rome. His people were Arabs who had been practicing Sadducean Judaism for centuries, mixed with idolatry. In 525 CE, Dhu Nuwas and his people were crushed by Rome through their Ethiopian allies. The next decades saw a series of uprisings of Samaritans against the Romans.

In Muhammad’s (pbuh) time, “Jew” meant “those who kept Sadducean Judaism”.

In Arabia, for centuries there had been some measure of freedom to practice Judaism. The Tubba’ kings claimed descent from Tobiah and Herod. They established “Jewish” worship based on Sadducean Judaism, Hellenism and by that time idolatry. They controlled a portion of the spice road and became wealthy. When the spice trade collapsed, the Tubba’ dynasty lost all power. The Jews and Christians of Arabia used religion as a political weapon, insisting that one must become either Jewish or Christian, meaning to side with Persia or Rome, and left no middle ground. The Qur’an never says ‘ Oh Jews’ because it means “those who keep Judaism” by choice, and not a people. When the Prophet (pbuh) came, he wished to bring the entire religion to Monotheism. The Arabs who kept this mix of Sadducean Judaism, as well as their priestly allies, fought the reforms of the Prophet (pbuh). They wished to hide the message of a simple Abrahamic faith. The Prophet (pbuh) was instructed to annul their obligation to Moasic Judaism, and replace it with something better, easier.

The Qur’an says the “Jews” of the Qur’an believed Ezra was the son of God. (Surely Allah SWT is above that). Al Jahiz refers to a Jewish group termed Saduqiyya (Sadducees) which are found in the Yemen, Syria, and Byzantine territory. He says their name stems from “a man whose name was Zadok (the student of Antigonus of Sokho), and that they held that ‘Uzayr was the son of God. Ibn Hazm records ”Al Saduqiyyh: This sect associates itself with a person called Saduq (Zadok). Differing with all other Jews, they regard Uzayr (Ezra) as the son of God. They live in Yemen. (Ibn Hazm’s Kitab al-Fasl fi al-Milal wa al-Ahwa wa al-Nihal)

As the Prophet (pbuh) struggled to bring the entire religion to Monotheism, the Muslims were originally thought to be Jews. Not until 638 CE, when the Muslims conquered Jerusalem, and agreed to the Christian request to create a shrine on the Dome of the Rock — in fact, largely because of this event — were they recognized as something else.

From 642-833 CE, due to direct intervention of the Caliphate, “Jew” was redefined to mean “Rabbinic Judaism”

The Sadducean Jews in Arabia continued to revolt against the Prophet (pbuh). They sided with the Kharijites against the Caliphate. Samaritan Jews in the Holy Land continued to revolt against Rome. Shortly after the Muslims conquered Jerusalem, and according to Sebeos after another plot to cause bloodshed in Jerusalem, Caliph ‘Umar (pbuh) decided to put an end to all these revolts. In 642 CE, he deposed the Exilarch Heman (I propose same as Abdullah ibn Saba) and appointed Bustanai, a representative of Rabbinic Judaism from the academic schools in Babylon, to be Exilarch. He determined Rabbinic Jews to be different from the other sects, more religious, less hedonistic, offering prayer, charity and learning of Torah as required by Islamic law, but most of all more pacifist. For the first time in almost seven centuries, since Queen Salome Alexandra (141–67 BCE), did Rabbinic/Pharisaic Judaism have political leadership of the Jews. And now they were the only authorized form of Judaism throughout the Islamic empire for the next two centuries.

Khazaria and the last of the “Judaizers”

The non-Rabbinic Jews tried to find autonomy outside the Islamic Empire. They succeed in forming a Jewish state in Khazaria from 600CE to 800CE. This was encouraged for a while by the Romans, because it limited the advance of the Umayyad Caliphate and its Abbasid successor. But eventually it was destroyed by the Rus (Russians) and held up in the West as the last example of the militant “Jew” who fought against Christian Rome. The creation of that state was called “Judaizing”, a charge that transfered to Rabbinic Jews without reason, after the disappearance of the Khazars.

Caliph Al-Ma’mun (813-33 CE) abolished the decree giving Rabbinic Judaism exclusive leadership throughout the Islamic empire. The academies remained in Babylon (Iraq), but the Exilarchs and many Rabbinic leaders found more favorable conditions in Egypt and later in Spain. The Crusades revived interest in the “zealot Jews” and the “judaizing” opponents of Rome, and by extension Christianity. Stories dating back to the independent kingdoms of Dhu Nuwas and Khazaria found new life in wild tales of the lost ten tribes.

Europe meets Rabbinic “Jews” effectively for first time

In 1492, Spain fearing that the recently conquered Jews would betray them to the Muslims, expelled all Jews from their lands. Many traveled to the Ottoman empire. Many to France and later Germany and then Ukraine. Some to the Holy Land. For the first time Europe had contact with Rabbinic Jews and it took four hundred years for Europeans to realize that these Jews were very different from the image of Jews they had from the New Testament, or legends of warrior Jews beyond the Carpathian mountains or Arabian deserts.

For three hundred years, Rabbinic Jews grew up in Europe and their counterparts, along with Karaite and to a smaller extent Samaritan Jews, grew up under the Ottoman empire. Napolean, with his conquests, brought these both together. The oriental Jews were originally called Franks, after the French Napolean who had put them on the road to emancipation and facilitated their traveling in Europe. For the first time Europe began to see much more Oriental Jews, and the Muslims came in contact with the Western, Enlightenment Jews. The Jews had been so much of an outcast in Europe that emancipation was welcomed by many. Secularization and French Laïcité had become the new Hellenism, and whole communities were leaving Torah. Some following the logical result of this trend became political reformers, social reformers, liberal activists and some became champions of Communism.

Today

The Jewish leadership declared this a crisis, but there was much disagreement on what to do. This resulted in Rabbinical Judaism breaking into three movements. The path of learning, originally based in Lithuania, stressed a sheltered Torah lifestyle safeguarded from any outside influence. The path of the mystic, originally based in Poland and Ukraine, which stressed the importance of being happy in adversity through a spiritual reading of Torah. The path of the nationalist, inspired by the nationalism of the 1800s, which sought a home for the Jewish people. Today, all three of these types are called “Jews”.

الأبوين أو الوالدين

  A wonderful and useful interpretation:

What is the difference between the words “al-abawayn” (الأبوين) and “al-walidayn” (الوالدين) in the Qur’an?

Here’s a fascinating piece of knowledge I wanted to share, to show the greatness of the Qur’an and the beauty and elegance of the Arabic language in which the last and greatest of the divine books was revealed.

When you see the word “al-abawayn” (الأبوين), know that the verse refers to both father and mother, with a slight emphasis on the father, because the word is derived from “abawa” (fatherhood), which is a characteristic of the father, not the mother.

Therefore, in all verses related to inheritance, responsibilities, or serious obligations, the word used is “al-abawayn”, to suit the man. The man is responsible for spending (financially), so his inheritance is spent, while the mother’s inheritance is preserved.

For example:

“And for his parents, to each one of them, one-sixth of what he leaves…” (Qur’an)

“…and He raised his parents on the Throne…” (Qur’an)

On the other hand, when you see the word “al-walidayn” (الوالدين), know that the verse refers to both father and mother, with a slight emphasis on the mother, because the word is derived from “waladah” (giving birth), which is a characteristic of the woman.

Thus, in all recommendations, forgiveness, prayers, and acts of kindness, the word used is “al-walidayn”, to correspond to the merit and virtue of the mother.

For example:

“And We have enjoined upon man [care] for his parents…” (Qur’an)

“…and your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents good treatment…” (Qur’an)

So, glory be to Allah the Almighty for the precision of words and the beauty of eloquence in the Qur’an.

And may he who writes this find success, reward, and forgiveness.

تفسير رائع ومفيد

مالفرق بين كلمة ( الأبوين ) و ( الوالدين ) في القرآن الكريم

معلومة رائعة أردت أن أشارككم معرفتها ، لتتجلى لنا عظمة القرآن الكريم ، وروعة وجمال اللغة العربية التي نزل فيها آخر أعظم الكتب السماوية

إذا رأيت كلمة ( الأبوين ) ؛ فاعلم أن الآية قصدت الأب والأم ، مع الميل لجهة الأب ، لأن الكلمة مشتقة من الأبوة ، التي هي للأب وليست للأم

لذا كل آيات المواريث ، وتحمل المسؤولية ، والتبعات الجسام ، إلا وتكون الكلمة ( الأبوين ) ليناسب ذلك الرجل ، فالرجل هو المسؤول عن الإنفاق ، فميراثه مصروف ، وميراثها محفوظ

قال تعالى : ولأبويه لكل واحد منهما السدس مما ترك

وقوله تعالى : ورفع أبويه على العرش

أما إذا رأيت كلمة ( الوالدين ) ، فاعلم أن الآية قصدت الأب والأم ، مع الميل لجهة الأم ، فالكلمة مشتقة من الولادة ، والتي هي من صفات المرأة دون الرجل

في كل توصية ، ومغفرة ، ودعاء ، وإحسان ، إلا وتكون الكلمة ( الوالدين ) ، ليتناسب ذلك مع فضل الأم

قال تعالى : ووصينا الإنسان بوالديه إحسانا

وقوله تعالى : وقضى ربك ألا تعبدوا إلا إياه وبالوالدين إحسانا

فسبحان الله العظيم ، على دقة اللفظ ، وروعة البلاغة في القران الكريم

وقد أفلح من كتبها ، له الأجر والمغفرة

إمرأة / إمرأت

Why was the word “woman” written in two different ways in the Holy Qur’an: “إمرأة” and “إمرأت”?

Every definite woman (one whose identity we know) is written with an open tā’: إمرأت.
Every indefinite woman (one whose identity we do not know) is written with a tied tā’: إمرأة.

Here is the detailed explanation after this brief summary:

The word إمرأت is written with an open tā’ when we know who this woman is.
A woman is considered defined when she is linked to her husband—either through a connected pronoun that refers to him, or by mentioning his name explicitly.

لماذا كتبت كلمة “ إمرأة / إمرأت ” بطريقتين فى القرآن الكريم ؟
كل امرأة معرفة ( نعرف من هى ) تكتب بالتاء المفتوحة إمرأت
وكل امرأة نكرة (لا نعرف من هى ) تكتب بالتاء المربوطة إمرأة

وإليكم التفصيل بعد هذا الإجمال

تكتب كلمة إمرأت بالتاء المفتوحة إن كنا نعرف هذه المرأة
وتعريف المرأة يكون بالإضافة إلى زوجها بضمير متصل يدل عليه أو إلى اسمه مصرحا به

” إِذْ قَالَتِ امْرَأَتُ عِمْرَانَ رَبِّ إِنِّي نَذَرْتُ لَكَ مَا فِي بَطْنِي مُحَرَّرًا فَتَقَبَّلْ مِنِّي إِنَّكَ أَنتَ السّمِيعُ الْعَلِيمُ ”
(35) سورة آل عمران
” وَقَالَ نِسْوَةٌ فِي الْمَدِينَةِ امْرَأَتُ الْعَزِيزِ تُرَاوِدُ فَتَاهَا عَن نَفْسِهِ قَدْ شَغَفَهَا حُبًّا إِنَّا لَنَرَاهَا فِي ضَلاَلٍ مُّبِينٍ ”
(30) سورة يوسف
“وَقَالَتِ امْرَأَتُ فِرْعَوْنَ قُرَّتُ عَيْنٍ لِّي وَلَكَ ۖ لَا تَقْتُلُوهُ عَسَىٰ أَن يَنفَعَنَا أَوْ نَتَّخِذَهُ وَلَدًا وَهُمْ لَا يَشْعُرُونَ ”
(9) سورة القصص
” ضَرَبَ اللّهُ مَثَلًا لِّلَذِينَ كَفَرُوا اِمْرَأَتَ نُوحٍ وَاِمْرَأَتَ لُوطٍ كَانَتَا تَحْتَ عَبْدَيْنِ مِنْ عِبَادِنَا صَالِحَيْنِ فَخَانَتَاهُمَا فَلَمْ يُغْنِيَا عَنْهُمَا مِنَ اللهِ شَيْئًا وَقِيلَ ادْخُلَا النَّارَ مَعَ الدَّاخِلِينَ ”
(10) سورة التحريم
5- ” وَضَرَبَ اللَّهُ مَثَلًا لِّلَذِينَ آمَنُوا اِمْرَأَتَ فِرْعَوْنَ إِذْ قَالَتْ رَبِّ ابْنِ لِي عِندَكَ بَيْتًا فِي الْجَنَّةِ وَنَجِّنِي مِن فِرْعَوْنَ وَعَمَلِهِ وَنَجِّنِي مِنَ الْقَوْمِ الظَّالِمِينَ ”
(11) سورة التحريم

The word إمرأة is written with a tied tā’ when we do not know who this woman is.

تكتب كلمة إمرأة بالتاء المربوطة عندما لا نعرف من هي هذه المرأة
” وَإِنِ ( امْرَأَةٌ ) خَافَتْ مِن بَعْلِهَا نُشُوزًا أَوْ إِعْرَاضًا فَلاَ جُنَاحَ عَلَيْهِمَا أَن يُصْلِحَا بَيْنَهُمَا صُلْحًا وَالصُّلْحُ خَيْرٌ … ”
(128) سورة البقرة
” إِنِّي وَجَدتُّ امْرَأَةً تَمْلِكُهُمْ وَأُوتِيَتْ مِن كُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَلَهَا عَرْشٌ عَظِيمٌ ”
(23) سورة النمل
“.. وَامْرَأَةً مُّؤْمِنَةً إِن وَهَبَتْ نَفْسَهَا لِلنَّبِيِّ إِنْ أَرَادَ النَّبِيُّ أَن يَسْتَنكِحَهَا خَالِصَةً لَكَ مِن دُونِ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ .. ”
(50) سورة الأحزاب

 Moslim Bulla من الصديق

التفسير الصوفي للقرآن

 Khalid Muhammad Abduh

Saturday, December 7, 2019

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When the greatness of what is being spoken reaches your heart, there is nothing higher, nobler, more beneficial, more delightful, or sweeter than listening to the words of Allah, Glorious and Exalted, and understanding the meanings of His speech with reverence, love, and veneration, since He is the Speaker. The love for the words is proportional to the love for the Speaker.
(Al-Harith al-Muhasibi: “Reason and Understanding the Qur’an,” Dar al-Fikr, Beirut, 1983)

In Islamic heritage, there are many texts expressing the life of the Sufi with the sacred texts. A Sufi knows the rules of the Arabic language, the sciences of rhetoric and eloquence, the reasons for revelation, and all the sciences of the Qur’an that a jurist relies upon. However, the Sufi does not suffice with merely repeating what previous scholars wrote about the Qur’an. They are not content to be merely heirs to the experiences and opinions of their predecessors, regardless of their rank or scholarly status. Perhaps they may benefit from a hint that opens a door to other hints or clarifies what was obscure, thus drawing from them a thread that leads to the creation of their own unique fabric. But to be merely a follower of others, negating one’s own experience and self-expression—this is unacceptable for those reborn and living the renewed experience of revelation, as in the case of unique Sufi practitioners.

A Sufi may theorize about how to extract meanings from texts and recount what is narrated about the apparent and hidden dimensions of the Qur’an, but in reality, such theorizing is not directed toward peers who live the divine letters and embody them with their blood and speech. Rather, this theoretical discourse is intended for the masses, who love formal foundations and demand proof for every word spoken, regardless of the meanings that words cannot fully convey and the language cannot properly express.

For example, when a Sufi speaks of each apparent meaning (zahir) having seventy hidden meanings (batin), this is an address to the masses according to what they love. Otherwise, the same words may later astonish the public and, for opponents of Sufism, be misinterpreted as heresy or esotericism that distorts religion, instead of being read as a guide to experiencing life with God and His speech.

In the religious history of the Islamic world, there exists a unique, significant adventure that elevated Islam to a true search for the Absolute: the adventure of spiritual seekers known as Sufis.
(Abbé Paul Nouet)

Sufi interpretation seeks its legitimacy in the sayings of Prophet Muhammad and his noble family. Thus, Sufi exegesis often includes narrations attributed to the Prophet, such as: “The Qur’an has many faces; interpret it in the best of its faces,” “The Qur’an is under the Throne; it has a back and a front and argues with the servants,” “The Qur’an was revealed in seven letters; each verse has a back and a front; each letter has a limit, and each limit has an origin.”

Similarly, Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq is reported to have said: “The Book of God has four aspects: the words, the indications, the subtleties, and the truths. The words are for the general public, the indications for the select, the subtleties for the saints, and the truths for the prophets.” In other words, the Qur’an comprises words, indications, subtleties, and truths: words for hearing, indications for intellect, subtleties for witnessing, and truths for surrender.
(See: Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq, “Sufi-Gnostic Exegesis of the Qur’an,” according to Al-Salmi al-Shafi‘i, Dar al-Buraq, Beirut 2002, p. 71)

These texts granted many Sufis religious freedom in reading, understanding, and interpreting the Qur’an. Although its words are ancient, its meanings are fresh, alive, and open to the reflection of the recipient at all times. This implies that no authority has the right to monopolize Qur’anic interpretation or confine its meanings within traditional commentaries, however widely accepted.

Sahl al-Tustari (d. 283 AH) said: “If a servant were granted a thousand understandings for each letter of the Qur’an, he would still not reach the limit of what God intended in any verse, because it is God’s speech, and as God has no end, neither does the understanding of His speech. They only understand according to what God opens to the hearts of His chosen ones.”

One may become a scholar in grammar, rhetoric, or metrics through study alone without applying it personally. But approaching the Qur’an to uncover its hidden pearls behind letters and words requires much more according to Sufi rules: struggling against the self, purifying it of vices, adorning it with virtues, presence of heart with God, listening attentively, and then God grants insight, inspiration, and the understanding of His speech.

Ibn ‘Ata’ al-Adami (d. 309 AH), a Sufi exegete, said: “Only one who has purified his heart from all worldly attachments can understand the indications of the Qur’an.” Abu Talib al-Makki (d. 386 AH) elaborated: “When the servant listens attentively before his Hearing One, focusing on the meaning of His words, witnessing the attributes of God, leaving his intellect and prior knowledge aside, humble before God’s presence, then he hears the decisive speech and witnesses the knowledge of the unseen response.”

Each Sufi’s experience differs according to what they have attained, just as interpretations of apparent meanings differ among scholars. Ibn ‘Ata’ al-Adami explained that the Sufi’s interpretations do not negate the apparent meaning; rather, the verse provides what is revealed to them according to the language’s conventions, with hidden rulings understood by those whose hearts God opens.

Sufis also respect exoteric interpretations, as Al-Ghazali emphasized: one cannot reach the hidden meanings before mastering the apparent meanings. Claiming to understand the Qur’an’s secrets without grounding in exoteric interpretation is like claiming to reach the center of a house without passing through its door.

Example of Sufi exegesis: Abu Yazid al-Bistami interpreted “Indeed, when the kings enter a town, they corrupt it and make its noblest people humble…” (Surah An-Naml: 43) as referring to worldly kings enslaving people, while divine knowledge entering the heart similarly purifies it and transforms it completely. He preserved the apparent meaning while adding a Sufi insight.

Later, he commented on “Indeed, the might of your Lord is severe” (Surah Al-Buruj: 12), saying that human wrath is severe and merciless, but God’s might, though severe, contains mercy.

On “The Day We will gather the righteous before the Most Merciful” (Surah Maryam: 85), Abu Yazid wept in joy, and Ibn ‘Arabi commented that these were tears of gladness, not fear, as the gathering of the righteous is a sign of safety.

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Source: Raseef22 – Sufi Exegesis of the Qur’an

خالد محمّد عبده
السبت 7 ديسمبر 2019

 

فإذا عظم في صدرك تعظيم المتكلَّم به لم يكن عندك شيءٌ أرفع ولا أشرف ولا أنفع ولا ألذّ ولا أحلى من استماع كلام الله جلَّ وعزَّ ، وفهمِ معاني قوله تعظيمًا وحبًّا له وإجلالاً ، إذ كان تعالى قائلَه ، فحبُّ القول على قدر حبِّ قائله ، الحارث المحاسبي : العقل وفهم القرآن من دار الفكر ، بيروت ، 1983

في التراث الإسلامي نصوصٌ كثيرة تعبّر عن حياة الصوفيّ مع النصّوص الدّينية المقدّسة. فالصُّوفي يعرفُ قواعد اللغة وعلوم البلاغة والبيان وأسباب النزول وكافة علوم القران التي اعتمدها الفقيه ، لكنّ الصوفيّ لا يكتفي بتكرار ما ورد في كتب السابقين عن القرآن ، لا يرضي بأن يكون وريثًا لتجارب وآراء السابقين فحسب ، مهما كانت رتبتهم أو مقامهم العلمي ، ربما يستفيد منهم إشارة تفتح له الباب على إشارات أُخَر ، أو توضّح له ما استُغلق عليه ، فتكون استفادته منهم بالتقاطه لخيط يوصّله إلى صنع نسيجه الخاص ، لكنْ أن يكون تابعًا لغيره لاغيًا لتجربته الخاصة غير معبّرٍ عن ذاته ، فهذا ما لا يقنع به من وُلدوا ولادة جديدة وعاشوا تجربة الوحي المتجدد كما هو الحال عند متصوفة التجارب المتفرّدين

ربما نَظّرَ الصوفيُّ لكيفية استنباط المعاني من النصوص ، وذكر ما يُروى من حديث الظاهر والباطن ، لكنّه في حقيقة الأمر لا يتوجّه بهذا التنظير إلى أمثاله ممن يحيون الحروف الإلهية ويجسدونها بدمائهم وأقوالهم ؛ إنما يكون كلامه النظري ساريًا على دروب التآاليف التي لا يمكن الخروج عنها في عصره ، موجّهًا إياه إلى الجماهير التي تعشق فكرة التأصيل ويطلبون الدليل على كلّ كلمة تقال ، بصرف النظر عن المعاني التي تعجز الكلمات عن الإبلاغ عنها فيما بعد ولا تستطيع اللغة بحروفها المخلوقة التعبير عنها بحقّ

إن قرأت كلام الصوفيّ عن أنّ لكلّ ظاهرٍ سبعين باطنًا ، فهذا الكلام مخاطبة منه للجماهير بما تعشق ، وإلاّ فما يتلوه من كلام يُدهش الجمهور فيما بعد ، ويتحول عند خصوم التصوّف إلى كفر وإلحاد وباطنية تُخرج الدين عن صورته الحقّة بدلاً من أن يحسن القارئ الظنّ به ويحاول أن يقرأ تفسير الصوفي وإشاراته باعتباره تجربة عيش مع الله وكلامه

تُوجدُ في التاريخ الديني للعالم الإسلامي مغامرة كبرى وحيدة لها قيمة كونية ارتقت بالإسلام إلى مستوى بحثٍ حقيقيّ عن المطلق وهي مغامرة الروحانيين المتّفقِ على تسميتهم بالصوفيّة. الأب بول نويا

يلتمس التفسير الصوفي مشروعيته من كلام النبيّ محمد وآل بيته الكرام ، فتتكرر في كتب التفسير الصوفي مرويّات تنسب إلى النبي مثل: القرآن ذُو وجوه ، فاحملوه على أحسن وجوهه ، القرآنُ تحت العرش ، له ظهر وبطن يحاجّ العباد ،  أُنزل القرآنُ على سبعة أحرف ، لكلّ آية منه ظهر وبطن ، ولكلّ حرفٍ حدّ ، ولكلّ حدٍّ مُطلع. كما يُنسب إلى الإمام جعفر الصادق أنّه قال: كتابُ الله على أربعة أشياء: العبارة والإشارة واللّطائف والحقائق. فالعبارةُ للعوامِّ والإشارةُ للخواصّ واللّطائفُ للأولياء والحقائقُ للأنبياء عليهم السّلام. وقيل: القرآن عبارةٌ وإشارةٌ ولطائفُ وحقائقُ. فالعبارةُ للسّمعِ ، والإشارةُ للعقلِ ، واللّطائفُ للمشاهدة ، والحقائقُ للاستسلام ، يمكن مراجعة لإمام جعفر الصادق ، التفسير الصوفي العرفاني للقرآن ، بحسب حقائق التفسير وزيادات حقائق التفسير للسلمي الشافعي ، تقديم وتحقيق علي زيعور ، نشرة دار البراق بيروت 2002، ص 71

هذه النصوص وغيرها أعطت الحرية الدينية لكثير من الصوفية في قراءتهم للقرآن وفهمه وتفسيره ، لأن القرآن الكريم وإن كانت ألفاظه قديمة ، إلا أنّ معانيه غضّة طريّة متجدّدةٌ ومفتوحةٌ على تفكُّر المتلقّي في كلّ زمان. مما يعني أنه لا توجد أيّ سلطة تملك حقّ مصادرة تفسير القرآن من أحد المسلمين ، واحتكاره في طائفةٍ علميةٍ مكلّفةٍ بإنتاج تفسير رسمي ، كما لا توجد سلطةٌ تملك حقّ حبس المعاني القرآنية في التفاسير التراثية ، مهما كانت هذه التفاسير مقبولةً ومعتمدةً من جمهورٍ واسعٍ من الأمة

وفي هذا يقول سهل التستري تـ. 283 هـ: لو أُعطي العبدُ بكلّ حرفٍ من القرآن ألف فهم ، لما بلغ نهاية ما جعل الله تعالى في آية من كتاب الله تعالى من الفهم ، لأنّه كلام الله وكلامه صفته ، وكما أنّه ليس لله نهاية فكذلك لا نهاية لفهم كلامه ، وإنّما يفهمون على مقدار ما يفتح الله تعالى على قلوب أوليائه من فهم كلامه

يمكنك أن تصبح عالمًا في الكلام أو النحو أو العروض أو البلاغة إذا أدمنت النظر في قواعد هذه العلوم وكتبها ، وعكفت على دراستها وقتًا من الزمان ، دون أن تكون ملزمًا بتطبيق ذلك في حياتك الخاصة ، أمّا أن تُقبِلَ على القرآن لتكشف عن درره وجواهره الكامنة خلف حجاب الأحرف والكلمات ، فإن ذلك يتطلّب منك الكثير بحسب قواعد المتصوفة ، بداية من مجاهدة النفس وتصفيتها من الرذائل وتحليتها بالفضائل وحضور القلب مع الله وإلقاء السمع بين يديه حتى يفتح الله لك ، ويرزقك الكشف ويلهمك من لدنه علمًا ، حتى تتنزّل عليك معاني القرآن. ومن كلام الصوفية في ذلك ما قاله ابن عطاء الآدمي تـ. 309 هـ –أحد مفسّري الصوفية-: لا يفهم إشارات القرآن إلاّ من طهّر سرّه عن الأكوان بما فيها. وقد فصّل القول في ذلك صاحب قوت القلوب – أبو طالب المكّي تـ. 386 هـ – قائلاً: فإذا كان العبدُ ملقيًا السمع بين يدي سميعه مصغيًا إلى سرّ كلامه ، شهيد القلب لمعاني صفات شهيده ، ناظرًا إلى قدرته ، تاركًا لمعقوله ومعهود علمه ، متبرئًا من حوله وقوّته ، معظّمًا للمتكلّم ، واقفًا على حضوره ، مفتقرًا إلى الفهم بحالٍ مستقيمٍ وقلبٍ سليمٍ وصفاء يقين وقوة علمٍ وتمكينٍ ، سمِع فصل الخطاب وشهِد علم غيب الجواب

تختلف تجربة كلّ صوفيّ عن غيره بحسب ما وصل إليه وما رُزقه من فهم ومعرفة ، كما تختلف تفاسير أهل الظاهر للآية الواحدة ، فهل يلغي الصوفي إذًا التفاسير الشهيرة بما يقدّمه لنا من أذواق جديدة حول معاني الآيات؟ يرى ابن عطاء الله السكندري حكيم المتصوفة تـ. 709 هـ ، أن ما يفعله الصوفي ليس إحالة للظاهر عن ظاهره ، ولكنّ الآية مفهوم منها ما جُلبت له ودلّت عليه في عُرف اللسان ، وهناك أحكام باطنة تُفهم عن الآية لمن فتح الله قلبه. على أنّ الصوفي حريصٌ على تدبّر التفاسير الظاهرة والتعرّف على ما جاء فيها ، ويؤكد حجّة الإسلام الغزالي تـ. 505 هـ ، على أنه لا مطمع في الوصول إلى الباطن قبل إحكام الظاهر ، ومن ادعى فهم أسرار القرآن ولم يُحكم التفسير الظاهر فهو كمن يدّعي البلوغ إلى صدر البيت قبل مجاوزة الباب ، أو يدّعي فهم مقاصد الأتراك من كلامهم وهو لا يفهم لغة الترك

ويحسن بنا أن نذكر مثالاً على التفسير الصوفي يوضّح ذلك ، حينما قرأ أبو يزيد البسطامي قوله تعالى: إِنَّ الْمُلُوكَ إِذَا دَخَلُوا قَرْيَةً أَفْسَدُوهَا وَجَعَلُوا أَعِزَّةَ أَهْلِهَا أَذِلَّةً وَكَذَٰلِكَ يَفْعَلُونَ ، سورة النمل:43 ، فسّر الآية قائلاً: أراد بذلك أن عادة الملوك إذا نزلوا قرية أن يستعبدوا أهلها ، ويجعلوهم أذلّة لهم ، ولا يقدرون أن يعملوا شيئًا إلاّ بأمر الملك ، وكذلك المعرفة ، إذا دخلت القلب لا تترك فيه شيئَا إلاّ أخرجته ولا يتحرك فيه شيءٌ إلاّ أحرقته. ونلاحظ في تفسير البسطامي للآية أنه حافظ على المعنى الظاهر للآية ، وعن طريق المشابهة بين ما تفعله الملوك من إفساد واستعباد وما تفعله المعرفة بقلب الإنسان ذكر لنا ذوقه وإشارته الصوفية حول هذه الآية. لكنه في سياق آخر يقدم لنا لونًا تفسيريًا مغايرًا يحظى بحوار صوفي من ابن عربي بعد فترة من الزمن ، فحينما سمع أبو يزيد قارئاً يتلو الآية القرآنية: إِنَّ بَطْشَ رَبِّكَ لَشَدِيدٌ” ، سورة البروج: 12 ، فقال: بطشي أشدّ. أي إن بطشي أشدّ من بطش الله عز وجل. وقد حظيت هذه العبارة التي نطق بها البسطامي باهتمام الصوفية وغيرهم من العلماء ، وصُنّفت ضمن شطحات الصوفية ، لكن ابن عربي فسّرها بشكل مقبول ، معتبرًا أن المخلوق إذا بطش فلا يكون في بطشه شيءٌ من الرحمة ، بل قد يخالطه الانتقام فيزيحه عن العدالة ، أما بطش الله عز وجل وإن كان شديداً ففيه رحمةٌ بالمبطوش به

في سياق آخر نجد ابن عربي يعلّق على قراءة أبي يزيد البسطامي للآية القرآنية: يَوْمَ نَحْشُرُ الْمُتَّقِينَ إِلَى الرَّحْمَنِ ، سورة مريم: 85 ، وذلك أن أبا يزيدٍ عندما سمع هذه الآية طار الدم من عينيه وقال: عجبًا كيف يَحْشُر إليه من هو جليسه. فإن الله يقول: أنا جليس من ذكرني ، والمتّقي ذاكرٌ لله. ويعلّق ابن عربي على موقف أبي يزيدٍ فيرى أن دموعه هي دموع فرح لا دمع حزن وخوف ، لأن في حَشْر المتقين إلى الرحمن، بشارة بالأمان

 

https://raseef22.net/article/1076024-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86

الجدل والمعرفة

 

الانسان بطبعه وخلقة يسعي للتعلم والمعرفة

ويؤدي هذا لتطور كيفية فهم وبناء حياته والخلق من حوله

والمعرفة نقاط منفصلة ، والحكمة تجمعها في سياق واحد

أَوَلَمْ يَتَفَكَّرُوا فِي أَنْفُسِهِمْ
مَا خَلَقَ اللَّهُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ وَأَجَلٍ مُسَمًّى

هكذا تتحول النقطة الى مجموعة نقاط يراها كل شخص بشكل مختلف

ومع زيادة معرفة الانسان يكون له رأي يؤمن به ويتعصب له

كما أن زيادة المعارف نؤدي الى الغياب التدريجي لحقيقة المعرفة

وَمَا اخْتَلَفَ الَّذِينَ أُوتُوا الْكِتَابَ إِلَّا مِن بَعْدِ مَا جَاءَهُمُ الْعِلْمُ بَغْيًا بَيْنَهُمْ

ويجادل الناس دفاعاً عما يؤمنوا به ، سواء صح أم خطأ معرفياً

وغالب الجدل يكون حول مفهوم الناس للأشياء وليس في حقيقتها

والجدل المعرفي هو ما يكون على الحقيقة الثابتة الآصيلة

وأصحاب جدل المعرفة والحقيقة لا يجادلون أبداً

وَلَوْ شَاء رَبُّكَ لآمَنَ مَن فِي الأَرْضِ كُلُّهُمْ جَمِيعا

هكذا تكون المعرفة الحقة بسيطة بساطة وصل نقطتين فقط

Man, by his nature and creation, seeks to learn and know

This leads to the development of how to understand and build his life and the creation around him

Knowledge is separate points, and wisdom brings it together in one context

“Do they not contemplate within themselves? Allah has not created the heavens and the earth and what is between them except in truth and for a specified term“

Thus the point becomes a set of points that each person sees differently

And with the increase in the knowledge of man, he will have an opinion that believes in and prejudices him

Just as more knowledge leads to a gradual absence of the truth of knowledge

“And those who were given the Scripture did not differ except after knowledge had come to them – out of jealous animosity between themselves”

People argue in defense of what they believe in, whether true or false

And most of the controversy is about people’s perception of things and not what they are

And the controversy is what is based on the fixed and authentic truth

Those who hold knowledge and truth are never arguing

“And had your Lord willed, those on earth would have believed – all of them entirely.”

Thus, true knowledge is simple, just connecting two points